NOTE:
We have decided to make our PoC exclusively available to our customers to avoid abuse by script kiddies or cybercriminals.
If this technical report interests you, please contact us via email at "contact[at]ricsec.co.jp".
注意:
開発したPoCは弊社のお客様のみがご利用可能です。
PoCまたは和訳レポートにご興味のある方は"contact[at]ricsec.co.jp"までメールをお送りください。
On March 11, Microsoft released the report on SMBGhost, an integer overflow vulnerability in the SMBv3.1.1 message decompression routine of the kernel driver srv2.sys. SMBGhost has been gathering attention due to the possibility of RCE (Remote Code Execution) and its "wormability".
However, while there have already been many public reports and PoCs of LPE (Local Privilege Escalation), none of them have shown that RCE is actually possible so far. This is probably because remote kernel exploitation is very different from local exploitation in that an attacker can't utilize useful OS functions such as creating userland processes, referring to PEB, and issuing system calls. Accompanied with mitigations introduced in Windows 10, this limitation makes the achievement of RCE much more challenging.
In this report, I show how we accomplished RCE, defeating limitations and mitigations. An especially interesting part of this is how we leaked randomized addresses (or obtained "read primitive"). Personally, I've never used or seen the technique we used here, which is what I feel makes this exploit interesting.
As each of the techniques I introduce in this exploitation is fairly involved, this report is quite long. The later sections can be summarized as follows:
In order to discuss the exploit, we need to grasp what the vulnerability exactly is. I show you simplified code for the vulnerable function and structs appearing in the function. Knowing these, you can understand how "write primitive" and LPE are attained.
In this section, I explain some miscellaneous things which are required to fully understand the details of our exploit. Although these are indispensable to fully understand how our exploit works, they are unrelated to the main part of this article. Hence you can skip this section if necessary.
In the latest version of Windows 10, RCE became extremely challenging owing to almost flawless address randomization. In a nutshell, we defeat this mitigation by abusing MDL (memory descriptor list)s, structs frequently used in kernel drivers for Direct Memory Access. By forging this struct, we make it possible to read from "physical" memory. As basically no exception will occur when reading physical memory locations, we obtain a stable read primitive.
Next, we need to consider how to make effective use of the physical read primitive described in section 2. It is actually possible to defeat PML4 randomization with it. For a long time, the Windows paging mechanism has been heavily dependent on an implementation technique called self-reference, and it has been sometimes abused in exploitations. Given this history, Windows 10 Anniversary Update randomized the index of PML4 self-referencing entry to mitigate such exploitations.
Physical read primitives, however, can easily defeat this. Once the randomization is defeated, we can take full control of PTEs, and be able to arbitrarily translate virtual addresses into physical addresses and manipulate access permissions of memory.
After achieving good read primitives and defeating PML4 randomization, exploitation is relatively straightforward. Therefore I'll barely touch upon what we've done in subsequent steps. Nevertheless, I'd like to mention (userland) CFG, which I was stuck at while writing kernel land shellcode to launch a userland process.
As other reports have pointed out, SMBGhost is an integer overflow vulnerability that exists in srv2!Srv2DecompressData, the routine that decompresses compressed request packets. Before we step into how to exploit this, we need to analyze the root cause and consider how it can be abused.
The following is simplified code for srv2!Srv2DecompressData:
As noted in the code, you can see the primary integer overflow at (A). Considering that both compressHeader.originalCompressedSegSize and compressHeader.offsetOrLength can be controlled by an attacker, the vulnerability is obvious. Additionally, we can immediately see a subsequent buffer overflow at (B) if we set compressHeader.originalCompressedSegSize to a very large number (e.g. 0xffffffff). To figure out what we can overwrite with this buffer overflow, we need to find out what is situated near this buffer.
Let's take a look at srvnet!SrvNetAllocateBufferFromPool (called in srvnet!SrvNetAllocateBuffer):
I think you'll be as surprised as me when I first saw this. For some reason, the buffer lies directly above its header! :o
I still don't understand what brought Microsoft developers to design the memory layout like this, but this layout makes things easy. We can overwrite SRVNET_BUFFER_HDR with the buffer overflow at (B) :)
This is actually important for building a write primitive. In brief, we can achieve arbitrary write at (C) if we overwrite pNetRawBuffer at (B). For further details, I recommend reading the report and LPE PoC of ZecOps.
You may think that if you set compressHeader.originalCompressedSegSize to a malformed value, then the check finalDecompressedSize != compressHeader.originalCompressedSegSize should return true and decompression will fail without reaching (C).
However, as mentioned in ZecOps's report, for some reason srvnet!SmbCompressionDecompress assigns originalCompressedSegSize to finalDecompressedSize with only a few checks. Hence, this function becomes a write primitive, and is enough for LPE.
So far we've discussed the root cause and how to build a write primitive, which have both already been unraveled in many reports. Now, let's get down to business. To obtain a read primitive, we leverage Lookasides Lists and KUSER_SHARED_DATA.
Lookaside Lists are a mechanism or API offered in Windows kernel to cache data structures that are frequently allocated and freed. Since it takes considerable time to call ExAllocatePoolWithTag and ExFreePoolWithTag every time, kernel drivers often have a lookaside list for its own data structures.
As you may know, in the latest version of Windows 10, almost all virtual addresses are randomized, including stacks, heaps (even HAL's heap!), PTEs, etc. As far as I know, the only exception is KUSER_SHARED_DATA, which is a struct (and page) mapped in both userland and kernel land. Its address is 0x7ffe0000 and 0xfffff78000000000, and it's set to r-- and rw- in userland and kernel land, respectively.
This is the most important part of the exploit. As I've emphasized many times, knowing the correct addresses is inevitably required to exploit the latest version of Windows. Because the header we can destroy doesn't immediately provide any information leakage, we need to think out a clever way to this end.
The first problem is that the header we break is used for request packets, not response packets. This indicates that achieving arbitrary read is not as simple as recklessly overwriting pNetRawBuffer or any other member; with a simple overwrite, the server would either remain silent or at most return a normal response.
Fortunately, srv2.sys provides us with a convenient function, srv2!Srv2SetResponseBufferToReceiveBuffer:
This function is presumably employed to efficiently reuse buffers since requests and responses share many common parts in their payloads. In fact, srv2.sys doesn't initialize response buffers when they are prepared with srv2!Srv2SetResponseBufferToReceiveBuffer. Therefore, if we can call this function after breaking a request buffer, we'll also have a broken response buffer.
For some more good news, srv2!Srv2SetResponseBufferToReceiveBuffer is called in srv2!Smb2SetError, a function called when srv2.sys wants to send error messages. To sum it up, we can break a response buffer by carefully sending a crafted request which the server recognizes as "normal but erroneous".
We've managed to take a step forward, but there is another issue: what should we do with a broken buffer? As stated in our summary, we deal with this by using MDLs (Memory Descriptor Lists). Because tcpip.sys ends up relying on DMA (Direct Memory Access) to transfer packets, drivers maintain the physical addresses of buffers in MDL. Even though the description in Microsoft Docs doesn't mention physical address, MDL structs actually contain physical addresses preceded by 8 members:
In SRVNET_BUFFER_HDR, pMDL1 and pMDL2 are the pointers to the MDL structs which describe memory containing data sent to a client by tcpip.sys
Now our approach is becoming clear. We want to overwrite pointers to MDL in a response header to obtain an information leak from physical memory. However, here we face the third problem. If we overwrite pMDL just like the write primitive (a naive buffer overflow), it would cause a crash and hence won't work. This is because pNonPagedPoolAddr exists between the overflown buffer and pMDL1. If we overwrite pMDL1 this way, pNonPagedPoolAddr is inevitably overwritten as well. Giving an invalid address to pNonPagedPoolAddr produces SEGV in srvnet!SrvNetFreeBuffer sooner or later because it calls ExFreePoolWithTag(header->pNonPagedPoolAddr, 0x3030534Cu).
This crash may be avoidable by setting pNonPagedPoolAddr to somewhere in KUSER_SHARED_DATA, but this approach is too complicated and almost impossible. It is also inconvenient as ExAllocatePoolWithTag might return an address in KUSER_SHARED_DATA (and perhaps cause a crash) even if we accidentally free it successfully.
Then what should we do? The answer is to set offsetOrLength to a large value so that &newHeader->pNetRawBuffer[compressHeader.offsetOrLength] directly points to the address of pMDL1. This prevents pNonPagedPoolAddr from being overwritten, at least at the buffer overflow at (B).
But we've not finished yet. See the second buffer overflow at (C). As you may have noticed, memmove would overwrite pNonPagedPoolAddr after all since &newHeader->pNetRawBuffer[compressHeader.offsetOrLength-8] points to pNonPagedPoolAddr. We also have to avoid this. To do this, we intentionally make srvnet!SmbCompressionDecompress fail. This results in SrvNetFreeBuffer(newHeader), but the freed buffer will remain broken in a lookaside list, and can be retrieved later as I explained in section 1.5.
The easiest way of making srvnet!SmbCompressionDecompress fail is to send a malformed LZNT1 payload. This requires a bit of reverse engineering of nt!RtlDecompressBufferLZNT1, but it can be done in no time. Even if we give a malformed payload to nt!RtlDecompressBufferLZNT1, it will continue decompressing the payload until it finds a broken chunk. Therefore, we can both overwrite pMDL and make the decompression fail at the same time.
Coming this far, it's easy to achieve a read primitive: we just forge an MDL struct in KUSER_SHARED_DATA with the write primitive, and then set pMDL to the address of the forged struct.
Now we have the ability to arbitrarily read physical memory. Usually, this doesn't lead to profit right away as modern kernels mostly don't deal directly with physical pages. Instead, they provide a paging mechanism with the help of MMUs. All accesses to memory modulo some exceptions are done through paging. The kernel keeps track of physical pages which are available and links them to virtual addresses on demand. Thus, paging can be thought of as a kind of allocator, so we can't be sure which physical page is used for what.
Notably, the Windows paging mechanism has the unique characteristic of being implemented by a technique called self-reference. Roughly speaking, self-reference allows PML4 to be also used as PDP (Page Directory Pointer), PD (Page Directory), and PT (Page Table). The main advantage of this technique is that it's very easy to calculate the virtual address of the PTE corresponding to a given virtual address because all virtual addresses of PTEs are immediately fixed once the index of the self-reference entry is set. I suggest reading the report of Core Security on the Windows paging mechanism for more in-depth details.
Thus, we now can dump PML4 with the physical read primitive. Since we can read physical pages as MMUs do, we are now also able to read PDPEs, PDEs, and PTEs. This allows us to translate virtual addresses into physical ones, so now we have a virtual read primitive too; we can read from a virtual address with the physical read primitive after translating it into the corresponding physical address.
After achieving read and write primitives, we can say our exploitation is almost done. All that's left is to find a function pointer for controlling IP (instruction pointer). For those who want to reproduce a PoC of RCE, I introduce three possible strategies.
For example, let's consider the situation where pNetRawBuffer originally has value X.
First, we overwrite pNetRawBuffer so that it points to somewhere else (say address Y).
Then, the following operations in srv2.sys refer to Y. This leaves X uninitialized.
As the MDL (which has the physical address of X) specifies where stuff is leaked as described before, we will see data of the uninitialized memory location X on the kernel heap. After getting a valid address from it, we can utilize the virtual read primitive again to retrieve more addresses until we find a function pointer to overwrite.
However, we didn't take this strategy because it's far from stable to rely on garbage, uninitialized data. This method might not be so random or unstable if this were a regular userland exploit; however, since many threads run simultaneously in the kernel sharing the kernel heap, this is not the case. Therefore, there is no assurance that we can find a useful address every time.
Instead, we searched physical pages for HAL's heap as PML4. Unlike the physical address of PML4, the physical address of the HAL's heap can vary depending on systems. Alex Ionescu's presentation includes a detailed explanation of this phenomenon and also many other important things I discuss later.
While the physical address of the HAL's heap varies depending on the environment, a brute-force search for this page is not so difficult. Again, we've tested the physical address under several environments to find that the address was at most 0x10f000.
Additionally, we can easily check whether the leaked page is really HAL's heap. What we're looking for is HalpInterruptController, which contains a number of pointers to HAL's functions. By comparing leaked addresses with the offsets of those functions we can perform the check accurately, although this method depends on the versions of Windows 10 and requires us to register all possible combinations of the offsets.
We haven't tested this strategy yet because I found the talk mentioned before while writing this report, but to me, it seems like this talk gives us a more promising approach. According to this presentation, we can obtain the physical address of PML4 and some useful virtual addresses by reading at physical address 0x1000 on most systems. This would make the exploit faster and more universal.
This is how I successfully got IP and had kernel land shellcode execute. My kernel land shellcode is a very orthodox one using APC (Asynchronous Procedure Call) twice to launch a reverse shell. But it didn't work at first.
In this report, I showed that remote kernel exploitation is still possible in the latest version of Windows by introducing a weird read primitive. This research (including writing this report) took us a long time, so I'm very relieved that we could publish the fruitful results. Enjoy, and stay tuned for more interesting content :)
If this technical report interests you, please contact us via email at "contact[at]ricsec.co.jp".
注意:
開発したPoCは弊社のお客様のみがご利用可能です。
PoCまたは和訳レポートにご興味のある方は"contact[at]ricsec.co.jp"までメールをお送りください。
Introduction
On March 11, Microsoft released the report on SMBGhost, an integer overflow vulnerability in the SMBv3.1.1 message decompression routine of the kernel driver srv2.sys. SMBGhost has been gathering attention due to the possibility of RCE (Remote Code Execution) and its "wormability".
However, while there have already been many public reports and PoCs of LPE (Local Privilege Escalation), none of them have shown that RCE is actually possible so far. This is probably because remote kernel exploitation is very different from local exploitation in that an attacker can't utilize useful OS functions such as creating userland processes, referring to PEB, and issuing system calls. Accompanied with mitigations introduced in Windows 10, this limitation makes the achievement of RCE much more challenging.
In this report, I show how we accomplished RCE, defeating limitations and mitigations. An especially interesting part of this is how we leaked randomized addresses (or obtained "read primitive"). Personally, I've never used or seen the technique we used here, which is what I feel makes this exploit interesting.
TL;DR
As each of the techniques I introduce in this exploitation is fairly involved, this report is quite long. The later sections can be summarized as follows:
1. Root cause and how to get Arbitrary Write
In order to discuss the exploit, we need to grasp what the vulnerability exactly is. I show you simplified code for the vulnerable function and structs appearing in the function. Knowing these, you can understand how "write primitive" and LPE are attained.
1.5. (appendix) Preliminary knowledge needed in later sections: Lookaside Lists and KUSER_SHARED_DATA
In this section, I explain some miscellaneous things which are required to fully understand the details of our exploit. Although these are indispensable to fully understand how our exploit works, they are unrelated to the main part of this article. Hence you can skip this section if necessary.
2. Address randomization and how to get Arbitrary Read
In the latest version of Windows 10, RCE became extremely challenging owing to almost flawless address randomization. In a nutshell, we defeat this mitigation by abusing MDL (memory descriptor list)s, structs frequently used in kernel drivers for Direct Memory Access. By forging this struct, we make it possible to read from "physical" memory. As basically no exception will occur when reading physical memory locations, we obtain a stable read primitive.
3. Defeating PML4 randomization
Next, we need to consider how to make effective use of the physical read primitive described in section 2. It is actually possible to defeat PML4 randomization with it. For a long time, the Windows paging mechanism has been heavily dependent on an implementation technique called self-reference, and it has been sometimes abused in exploitations. Given this history, Windows 10 Anniversary Update randomized the index of PML4 self-referencing entry to mitigate such exploitations.
Physical read primitives, however, can easily defeat this. Once the randomization is defeated, we can take full control of PTEs, and be able to arbitrarily translate virtual addresses into physical addresses and manipulate access permissions of memory.
4. Getting IP and bypassing CFG
After achieving good read primitives and defeating PML4 randomization, exploitation is relatively straightforward. Therefore I'll barely touch upon what we've done in subsequent steps. Nevertheless, I'd like to mention (userland) CFG, which I was stuck at while writing kernel land shellcode to launch a userland process.
1. Root cause and how to get Arbitrary Write
As other reports have pointed out, SMBGhost is an integer overflow vulnerability that exists in srv2!Srv2DecompressData, the routine that decompresses compressed request packets. Before we step into how to exploit this, we need to analyze the root cause and consider how it can be abused.
The following is simplified code for srv2!Srv2DecompressData:
signed __int64 __fastcall Srv2DecompressData(SRV2_WORKITEM *workitem)
{
// declarations omitted
...
request = workitem->psbhRequest;
if ( request->dwMsgSize < 0x10 )
return 0xC000090Bi64;
compressHeader = *(CompressionTransformHeader *)request->pNetRawBuffer;
...
// (A) an integer overflow occurs here
newHeader = SrvNetAllocateBuffer((unsigned int)(compressHeader.originalCompressedSegSize + compressHeader.offsetOrLength), 0i64);
if ( !newHeader )
return 0xC000009Ai64;
// (B) the first subsequent buffer overflow occurs in SmbCompressionDecompress
if ( SmbCompressionDecompress(
compression_type,
&workitem->psbhRequest->pNetRawBuffer[compressHeader.offsetOrLength + 16],
workitem->psbhRequest->dwMsgSize - compressHeader.offsetOrLength - 16,
&newHeader->pNetRawBuffer[compressHeader.offsetOrLength],
compressHeader.OriginalCompressedSegSize,
&finalDecompressedSize) < 0
|| finalDecompressedSize != compressHeader.originalCompressedSegSize) )
{
SrvNetFreeBuffer(newHeader);
return 0xC000090Bi64;
}
if ( compressHeader.offsetOrLength )
{
// (C) the second buffer overflow occurs here
memmove(newHeader->pNetRawBuffer, workitem->psbhRequest->pNetRawBuffer + 16, compressHeader.offsetOrLength);
}
newHeader->dwMsgSize = compressHeader.OffsetOrLength + fianlDecompressedSize;
Srv2ReplaceReceiveBuffer(workitem, newHeader);
return 0i64;
}
As noted in the code, you can see the primary integer overflow at (A). Considering that both compressHeader.originalCompressedSegSize and compressHeader.offsetOrLength can be controlled by an attacker, the vulnerability is obvious. Additionally, we can immediately see a subsequent buffer overflow at (B) if we set compressHeader.originalCompressedSegSize to a very large number (e.g. 0xffffffff). To figure out what we can overwrite with this buffer overflow, we need to find out what is situated near this buffer.
Let's take a look at srvnet!SrvNetAllocateBufferFromPool (called in srvnet!SrvNetAllocateBuffer):
struct __declspec(align(8)) SRVNET_BUFFER_HDR
{
LIST_ENTRY List;
USHORT Flag;
BYTE unknown0[4];
WORD unknown1;
PBYTE pNetRawBuffer;
DWORD dwNetRawBufferSize;
DWORD dwMsgSize;
DWORD dwNonPagedPoolSize;
DWORD dwPadding;
PVOID pNonPagedPoolAddr;
PMDL pMDL1; // points to mdl1
DWORD dwByteProcessed;
BYTE unknown2[4];
_QWORD unknown3;
PMDL pMDL2; // points to mdl2
PSRVNET_RECV pSrvNetWskStruct;
DWORD unknown4;
char unknown5[12];
char unknown6[32];
MDL mdl1; // variable size
MDL mdl2; // variable size
};
PSRVNET_BUFFER_HDR __fastcall SrvNetAllocateBufferFromPool(__int64 unused_size, unsigned __int64 size)
{
// declarations omitted
...
sizeOfHeaderAndBuf = (unsigned int)size + 0xE8i64;
...
sizeOfMDL = MmSizeOfMdl(0i64, (unsigned int)size + 0xE8i64);
sizeOfMDLAligned = sizeOfMDL + 8;
...
sizeOfMDLs = 2 * sizeOfMDLAligned;
...
allocSize = sizeOfMDLs + sizeOfHeaderAndBuf;
...
pNonPagedPoolAddr = (BYTE *)ExAllocatePoolWithTag((POOL_TYPE)512, allocSize, 0x3030534Cu);
...
// the buffer is located above the header(!)
pNetRawBuffer = (signed __int64)(pNonPagedPoolAddr + 0x50);
srbHeader = (PSRVNET_BUFFER_HDR)((unsigned __int64)&pNonPagedPoolAddr[size + 0x57] & 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF8ui64);
srbHeader->pNonPagedPoolAddr = pNonPagedPoolAddr;
srbHeader->pMDL2 = (PMDL)(((unsigned __int64)&srbHeader->mdl1 + sizeOfMDLAligned + 7) & 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF8ui64);
pMDL1 = (_MDL *)(((unsigned __int64)&srbHeader->mdl1 + 7) & 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF8ui64);
srbHeader->pNetRawBuffer = pNonPagedPoolAddr + 0x50;
srbHeader->pMDL1 = pMDL1;
...
return srbHeader;
}
I think you'll be as surprised as me when I first saw this. For some reason, the buffer lies directly above its header! :o
I still don't understand what brought Microsoft developers to design the memory layout like this, but this layout makes things easy. We can overwrite SRVNET_BUFFER_HDR with the buffer overflow at (B) :)
This is actually important for building a write primitive. In brief, we can achieve arbitrary write at (C) if we overwrite pNetRawBuffer at (B). For further details, I recommend reading the report and LPE PoC of ZecOps.
You may think that if you set compressHeader.originalCompressedSegSize to a malformed value, then the check finalDecompressedSize != compressHeader.originalCompressedSegSize should return true and decompression will fail without reaching (C).
However, as mentioned in ZecOps's report, for some reason srvnet!SmbCompressionDecompress assigns originalCompressedSegSize to finalDecompressedSize with only a few checks. Hence, this function becomes a write primitive, and is enough for LPE.
1.5. (appendix) Preliminary knowledge needed in later sections: Lookaside Lists and KUSER_SHARED_DATA
So far we've discussed the root cause and how to build a write primitive, which have both already been unraveled in many reports. Now, let's get down to business. To obtain a read primitive, we leverage Lookasides Lists and KUSER_SHARED_DATA.
Lookaside List
Lookaside Lists are a mechanism or API offered in Windows kernel to cache data structures that are frequently allocated and freed. Since it takes considerable time to call ExAllocatePoolWithTag and ExFreePoolWithTag every time, kernel drivers often have a lookaside list for its own data structures.
I won't go into details since it's not very important. The only thing you should keep in mind is that lookaside lists are introduced for efficiency. Hence, initialization and finalization of data structures are often skipped when they are maintained by lookaside lists. Because elements in a lookaside list should have been initialized before, in most cases there is no need to initialize again when an element is retrieved from a list.
Of course, this is also the case with SRVNET_BUFFER_HDR. The default behavior of srvnet!SrvNetAllocateBuffer is to offer lookaside lists for SRVNET_BUFFER_HDR (this can be changed through the Windows Registry), and most parts of the initialization are skipped when a header is allocated from a list. This suggests that we can break a header, add it to a list and then retrieve it from a list in later requests while keeping it broken. When building a read primitive, we need to depend on this to split the procedure of arbitrary read into two malformed requests.
KUSER_SHARED_DATA
As you may know, in the latest version of Windows 10, almost all virtual addresses are randomized, including stacks, heaps (even HAL's heap!), PTEs, etc. As far as I know, the only exception is KUSER_SHARED_DATA, which is a struct (and page) mapped in both userland and kernel land. Its address is 0x7ffe0000 and 0xfffff78000000000, and it's set to r-- and rw- in userland and kernel land, respectively.
Since we have already gained a write primitive, we can write arbitrary data into the mapping of KUSER_SHARED_DATA. This is very useful for us to forge some faked structs. Also, we can put both userland and kernel land shellcodes there since that mapping is exposed to both spaces. This saves us from preparing a userland mapping to place userland shellcode.
2. Address randomization and how to get Arbitrary Read
This is the most important part of the exploit. As I've emphasized many times, knowing the correct addresses is inevitably required to exploit the latest version of Windows. Because the header we can destroy doesn't immediately provide any information leakage, we need to think out a clever way to this end.
The first step
The first problem is that the header we break is used for request packets, not response packets. This indicates that achieving arbitrary read is not as simple as recklessly overwriting pNetRawBuffer or any other member; with a simple overwrite, the server would either remain silent or at most return a normal response.
Fortunately, srv2.sys provides us with a convenient function, srv2!Srv2SetResponseBufferToReceiveBuffer:
struct __declspec(align(16)) SRV2_WORKITEM
{
...
PSRVNET_BUFFER_HDR psbhRequest; // offset +0xf0
PSRVNET_BUFFER_HDR psbhResponse; // offset +0xf8
...
};
void __fastcall Srv2SetResponseBufferToReceiveBuffer(SRV2_WORKITEM *workitem)
{
...
workitem->psbhResponse = workitem->psbhRequest;
...
}
This function is presumably employed to efficiently reuse buffers since requests and responses share many common parts in their payloads. In fact, srv2.sys doesn't initialize response buffers when they are prepared with srv2!Srv2SetResponseBufferToReceiveBuffer. Therefore, if we can call this function after breaking a request buffer, we'll also have a broken response buffer.
For some more good news, srv2!Srv2SetResponseBufferToReceiveBuffer is called in srv2!Smb2SetError, a function called when srv2.sys wants to send error messages. To sum it up, we can break a response buffer by carefully sending a crafted request which the server recognizes as "normal but erroneous".
Memory Descriptor List
We've managed to take a step forward, but there is another issue: what should we do with a broken buffer? As stated in our summary, we deal with this by using MDLs (Memory Descriptor Lists). Because tcpip.sys ends up relying on DMA (Direct Memory Access) to transfer packets, drivers maintain the physical addresses of buffers in MDL. Even though the description in Microsoft Docs doesn't mention physical address, MDL structs actually contain physical addresses preceded by 8 members:
struct _MDL {
struct _MDL *Next;
CSHORT Size;
CSHORT MdlFlags;
struct _EPROCESS *Process;
PVOID MappedSystemVa;
PVOID StartVa;
ULONG ByteCount;
ULONG ByteOffset;
// Actually physical addresses follow.
// Therefore, the size of this struct is variable
} MDL, *PMDL;
 |
| Physical addresses are stored in MmBuildMdlForNonPagedPool |
In SRVNET_BUFFER_HDR, pMDL1 and pMDL2 are the pointers to the MDL structs which describe memory containing data sent to a client by tcpip.sys
Forging an MDL struct
Now our approach is becoming clear. We want to overwrite pointers to MDL in a response header to obtain an information leak from physical memory. However, here we face the third problem. If we overwrite pMDL just like the write primitive (a naive buffer overflow), it would cause a crash and hence won't work. This is because pNonPagedPoolAddr exists between the overflown buffer and pMDL1. If we overwrite pMDL1 this way, pNonPagedPoolAddr is inevitably overwritten as well. Giving an invalid address to pNonPagedPoolAddr produces SEGV in srvnet!SrvNetFreeBuffer sooner or later because it calls ExFreePoolWithTag(header->pNonPagedPoolAddr, 0x3030534Cu).
 |
| A wrong approach |
This crash may be avoidable by setting pNonPagedPoolAddr to somewhere in KUSER_SHARED_DATA, but this approach is too complicated and almost impossible. It is also inconvenient as ExAllocatePoolWithTag might return an address in KUSER_SHARED_DATA (and perhaps cause a crash) even if we accidentally free it successfully.
Then what should we do? The answer is to set offsetOrLength to a large value so that &newHeader->pNetRawBuffer[compressHeader.offsetOrLength] directly points to the address of pMDL1. This prevents pNonPagedPoolAddr from being overwritten, at least at the buffer overflow at (B).
But we've not finished yet. See the second buffer overflow at (C). As you may have noticed, memmove would overwrite pNonPagedPoolAddr after all since &newHeader->pNetRawBuffer[compressHeader.offsetOrLength-8] points to pNonPagedPoolAddr. We also have to avoid this. To do this, we intentionally make srvnet!SmbCompressionDecompress fail. This results in SrvNetFreeBuffer(newHeader), but the freed buffer will remain broken in a lookaside list, and can be retrieved later as I explained in section 1.5.
The easiest way of making srvnet!SmbCompressionDecompress fail is to send a malformed LZNT1 payload. This requires a bit of reverse engineering of nt!RtlDecompressBufferLZNT1, but it can be done in no time. Even if we give a malformed payload to nt!RtlDecompressBufferLZNT1, it will continue decompressing the payload until it finds a broken chunk. Therefore, we can both overwrite pMDL and make the decompression fail at the same time.
 |
| The right approach |
Coming this far, it's easy to achieve a read primitive: we just forge an MDL struct in KUSER_SHARED_DATA with the write primitive, and then set pMDL to the address of the forged struct.
3. Defeating PML4 randomization
Now we have the ability to arbitrarily read physical memory. Usually, this doesn't lead to profit right away as modern kernels mostly don't deal directly with physical pages. Instead, they provide a paging mechanism with the help of MMUs. All accesses to memory modulo some exceptions are done through paging. The kernel keeps track of physical pages which are available and links them to virtual addresses on demand. Thus, paging can be thought of as a kind of allocator, so we can't be sure which physical page is used for what.
However, every rule has exceptions. In this case, the rule isn't applied to physical pages which are allocated at the very beginning of the boot process. Among those pages, we focus on the page allocated for PML4, the top-level translation table in the paging mechanism.
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| How virtual addresses are usually translated into physical addresses |
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| The virtual address of the PTE can be calculated by just shifting bits |
As another article of Core Security points out, while modifying PTEs is a typical method for creating an attacker-friendly memory space for kernel exploitations to this day, Windows 10 has already mitigated that kind of method in its Anniversary Update. Note that this doesn't mean that Windows 10 has stopped depending on self-reference. It has just randomized the index of the self-referencing entry in the PML4 instead, which eventually randomizes the virtual addresses of PML4 and PTEs.
Let's get back on topic. I've just explained that the virtual address of PML4 is randomized. Then, how about the physical address of PML4? As you might expect, at least it's not intentionally randomized. PML4 is allocated at ArchpAllocateAndInitializePageTables implemented in BIOS/UEFI. We reverse-engineered bootmgr.exe and bootmgfw.efi to confirm that they don't have a deliberate randomization procedure. I have to note that this doesn't indicate they internally define a fixed physical address for PML4. Therefore, we additionally checked its physical address on qemu, VMWare, VirtualBox, and ThinkPad. Under every environment, PML4 has the physical address 0x1aa000 (BIOS) or 0x1ad000 (UEFI). The address may change in other untested environments, for example, on a hypervisor, but we can assume that the physical address of PML4 is fixed in most situations.
Thus, we now can dump PML4 with the physical read primitive. Since we can read physical pages as MMUs do, we are now also able to read PDPEs, PDEs, and PTEs. This allows us to translate virtual addresses into physical ones, so now we have a virtual read primitive too; we can read from a virtual address with the physical read primitive after translating it into the corresponding physical address.
4. Getting IP and bypassing CFG
After achieving read and write primitives, we can say our exploitation is almost done. All that's left is to find a function pointer for controlling IP (instruction pointer). For those who want to reproduce a PoC of RCE, I introduce three possible strategies.
One strategy we considered, but didn't take (which may still be useful)
Since we've already acquired arbitrary read from virtual addresses, one possible option to get IP is to find useful addresses in "garbage" on the kernel heap. This can actually be done in a similar fashion as described in section 2.For example, let's consider the situation where pNetRawBuffer originally has value X.
First, we overwrite pNetRawBuffer so that it points to somewhere else (say address Y).
Then, the following operations in srv2.sys refer to Y. This leaves X uninitialized.
As the MDL (which has the physical address of X) specifies where stuff is leaked as described before, we will see data of the uninitialized memory location X on the kernel heap. After getting a valid address from it, we can utilize the virtual read primitive again to retrieve more addresses until we find a function pointer to overwrite.
However, we didn't take this strategy because it's far from stable to rely on garbage, uninitialized data. This method might not be so random or unstable if this were a regular userland exploit; however, since many threads run simultaneously in the kernel sharing the kernel heap, this is not the case. Therefore, there is no assurance that we can find a useful address every time.
Our actual strategy
Instead, we searched physical pages for HAL's heap as PML4. Unlike the physical address of PML4, the physical address of the HAL's heap can vary depending on systems. Alex Ionescu's presentation includes a detailed explanation of this phenomenon and also many other important things I discuss later.
While the physical address of the HAL's heap varies depending on the environment, a brute-force search for this page is not so difficult. Again, we've tested the physical address under several environments to find that the address was at most 0x10f000.
Additionally, we can easily check whether the leaked page is really HAL's heap. What we're looking for is HalpInterruptController, which contains a number of pointers to HAL's functions. By comparing leaked addresses with the offsets of those functions we can perform the check accurately, although this method depends on the versions of Windows 10 and requires us to register all possible combinations of the offsets.
Probably a more universal strategy
We haven't tested this strategy yet because I found the talk mentioned before while writing this report, but to me, it seems like this talk gives us a more promising approach. According to this presentation, we can obtain the physical address of PML4 and some useful virtual addresses by reading at physical address 0x1000 on most systems. This would make the exploit faster and more universal.
The last obstacle
This is how I successfully got IP and had kernel land shellcode execute. My kernel land shellcode is a very orthodox one using APC (Asynchronous Procedure Call) twice to launch a reverse shell. But it didn't work at first.
While debugging the kernel and shellcode, I found that the userland CFG recognized the APC call for a userland shellcode as invalid, and intercepted it. As you can see in the screenshot below, ntdll!KiUserApcDispatch calls ntdll!LdrpValidateUserCallTarget before jumping into userland shellcode.
Since we can patch ntdll!LdrpValidateUserCallTarget in kernel land shellcode, it doesn't matter at all (though I spend a day debugging this...), but I wanted to share this episode because it seems like no one has discussed it on the Internet.
Concluding remarks
In this report, I showed that remote kernel exploitation is still possible in the latest version of Windows by introducing a weird read primitive. This research (including writing this report) took us a long time, so I'm very relieved that we could publish the fruitful results. Enjoy, and stay tuned for more interesting content :)
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